which three african countries gained independence after 1945?

Foccart supported in particular the Nigerian Civil War during the late 1960s. The victory of the overtly republican National Party in South Africa challenged British interests in the subcontinent. Frank Myers, "Harold Macmillan's" Winds of Change" Speech: A Case Study in the Rhetoric of Policy Change.". [51], French involvement in Algeria stretched back a century. WebIn Mozambique and Angola the unpopularity of the governments Marxist policiesincluding the concentration of the population in communal villages, state farms, and cooperatives and Riots broke out in Accra and though Nkrumah and other Ghanaian leaders were temporarily imprisoned, the event became a catalyst for the independence movement. The NPs economic policies appeared to threaten British investments in South Africa at a time when Britain was particularly dependent on its colonial possessions for its sterling balances, while the Nationalists also renewed their demand for the incorporation into South Africa of Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland. WebIndependence and Decolonization, Middle EastIn the decades immediately following the conclusion of World War II, European formal empires in the Middle East began to unravel. WebThroughout the 1950s and 1960s, many African countries gained their independence from Britain. [55] By 1962, the National Liberation Front was able to negotiate a peace accord with French President Charles de Gaulle, the vian Accords[56] in which Europeans would be able to return to their native countries, remain in Algeria as foreigners or take Algerian citizenship. The MPLA was supported by communists in Portugal, the Soviet Union, and Cuba, but its hegemony was contested from the start by Holden Robertos National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertao de Angola; FNLA), based in Congo (Kinshasa), and by Jonas Savimbis National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (Unio Nacional para a Independncia Total de Angola; UNITA), supported primarily by Ovimbundu in the south. For the territories of Southern Africa, the continuance of apartheid in South Africa shaped the postindependence years; the liberation of these territories in turn inspired and politicized South Africas Black populace and transformed the balance of power in the region. Part of the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt (11741218) She was arrested multiple times for instigating these rallies against British colonization. Access to welfare and political rights were made dependent on state-manipulated ethnic identities, which assumed new importance with the creation of the homelands. Do you know that if you join hands with us in the current political activities, your children could one day live in European quarters? African liberation in Rhodesia was closely tied to the independence struggles in Mozambique. Part of the Carthaginian Empire (814202 BC) Under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly. Angola (former Portuguese Angola), see Portuguese Colonial War. Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on the Gold Coast (present Ghana) since 22 April 1650, but lost the last when on 20 April 1663 Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg were seized by Denmark. [68] In a speech, Bibi Titi implored women to take advantage of their latent political influence saying: I told you [women] that we want independence. Part of the Macedonian Empire (Argead dynasty) (332323 BC) During the late 1970s Malawi, long believed to have successful rural development policies, also faced economic crisis. In 1652, the Swedes took Cape Coast (in modern Ghana) which had previously been under the control of the Dutch and before that the Portuguese. [72] As a delegate, Machel passed a resolution allowing girls to receive an education. By the end of the 1950s, Bibi Titi had become a prominent and powerful voice in politics, campaigning on behalf of freedom and development. Originally as Prime Minister; became President upon the monarchy's abolition. (31502575 BC) Launched by Ovambo contract workers, SWAPO came to represent most Black South West Africans in opposing apartheid, racial inequalities, and economic subordination to South Africa. As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-Lopoldville in 1960. Born in Dar es Salaam, Bibi Titi rose to prominence unexpectedly. Smith, eds. It was widely assumed that Southern Rhodesia would provide managerial and administrative skills, Northern Rhodesia copper revenues, and Nyasaland labour for the new entity. 1960 was the big year for African independence. In 1944 it was proposed that the colonies become overseas territories of France. The British government revised the Gold Coast Constitution to give Ghanaians a majority in the legislature in 1951. Notable independence movements took place: Algeria (former French Algeria), see Algerian War. When F.W. A group of elites, known as evolus, who were natives of the overseas territories but lived in metropolitan France emerged.[44][45][46]. New Caledonia remains a special case under French suzerainty. This event transformed political consciousness beyond the youthalthough they remained in the forefront of protest thereafterwith far-reaching consequences. Nigeria, the Belgian Congo (renamed Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo), Kenya, and others soon followed. [40] Macmillan urgently wanted to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria. The Soviet Union supplied weapons to the MPLA, which was aided by Cuban troops. The sanctions closed Zambias major trade and transportation routes through Rhodesia, and, although alternate routes were established through Angola and new east-west lines through Tanzania were constructed by the mid 1970s, subsequent armed incursions from Rhodesia and South Africa and continued warfare in Angola and Mozambique disrupted the costly new trade and transportation lines. The initiative was captured by the urban-based Popular Liberation Movement of Angola (Movimento Popular de Libertao de Angola; MPLA), under its poet-president Agostinho Neto. History High School answered expert verified Which THREE African countries gained independence after 1945? International involvement in the region increased, and by 1980 only South Africa and Namibia remained under minority rule. The region of Africa is generally defined geographically to include the subregions of African continent, Madagascar island, Mauritius Island and several minor islands, and their respective sovereign states. Alarm at the NP victory in South Africa also stimulated Britain into federating its south-central African territories as a bulwark against Afrikaner nationalism. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" (trinit coloniale) of state, missionary and private company interests. Botswana played a leading role in efforts to coordinate the regional economy. ", Muschik, Eva-Maria. Independence for Italys African colonies (Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, Somalia) came as a direct consequence of Italys downfall during the Second World War. In Africa, the United Kingdom launched the process of decolonization in the early 1950s. Some countries achieved independence peacefully. They argued that while de Gaulle was granting independence, on one hand, he was creating new ties with the help of Jacques Foccart, his counsellor for African matters. In Mozambique the nationalist organizations were initially more successfully united. During the second world war, some local African industries and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean reduced raw material transportation to Europe. [69] Female members of FRELIMO were either trained to be guerilla soldiers or part of the nonmilitary wing.[70]. WebBritain left India in 1947, Palestine in 1948, and Egypt in 1956; it withdrew from Africa in the 1950s and 60s, from various island protectorates in the 1970s and 80s, and from Hong Kong in 1997. In Botswana, which achieved its independence in 1966, Seretse Khamathe grandson of the Ngwato chief Khama IIIemerged as the first president. Zyrid Emirate, independent state (1048-1148) [71] At 18 years old, she attempted to flee the country and join FRELIMO in Tanzania. Which countries were independent before 1945? Nevertheless, technological innovation led to high unemployment for the unskilled, and urban conditions for Africans continued to deteriorate as impoverished homeland inhabitants defied the pass laws and sought work in town. "[37], In 1948, three Ghanaian veterans were killed by the colonial police on a protest march. Vandal Kingdom (439-533) Source for information on Independence and Decolonization, Middle [59] The Indian Ocean island of Mayotte voted in referendum in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo independence. Amaka-zine. Since 80,000 BC humans has been settled from with tribes, chiefdoms, confederations and kingdoms. (1990) Africa Under Colonial Domination, Volume 7], Bertocchia, G. & Canova, F., (2002) Did colonization matter for growth? In 1945 there were 35 members of the United Nations, but by 1970 the membership had risen to 127, with the bulk of new members being newly independent colonies. The early kingdoms and empires of the western Sudan, The wider influence of the Sudanic kingdoms, The Islamic revolution in the western Sudan, The Guinea coastlands and the Europeans (180779), Initial difficulty of European administration, Decolonization and the regaining of independence, The formation of African independence movements. Due to Rhodesia's unwillingness to accommodate the British government's request for black majority rule, the United Kingdom (along with the rest of the international community) refused to recognize the white-minority led government. She travelled out of Nigeria to represent Nigerian women at several international conferences such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union Conference (1964) and the World Womens International Domestic Federation Conference (1963). The independence movements in Africa during the early 1960s provided foreign policy opportunities to both the United States and the Soviet Union. Many more people in the British than in the French territories thus got some education, and appreciably more were able to attend universities. Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly two years later. WebIn 1957, the Gold Coast, renamed Ghana and under the guidance of Kwame Nkrumah,was the first former British colony to gain independence. Delegates from the colonies in fact participated in the making of the new postwar French constitution, but this was subject to referenda in which metropolitan French votes predominated. The economy also began to show signs of weakness by the mid 1970s. Under Hendrik Verwoerd, who served as minister of Native Affairs and later as prime minister (195866), apartheid took shape. Some countries achieved While at the end of the colonial period imperial interests still controlled the economies of the region, by the end of the 20th century South Africa had become the dominant economic power. Eyalet of Egypt, Eyalet (State) of the Ottoman Empire (15171867) (the Muhammad Ali dynasty became the hereditary governors [Wali] of the eyalet in 1805) [20]The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, three years after the end of World War II, recognised all people as being born free and equal.[21]. This is followed by France with 28, Spain with 17, The Soviet Union with 16, Portugal with 7 and the USA with 5. Jernimo, Miguel Bandeira, and Antnio Costa Pinto, eds. Political advance for the French colonies was naturally seen in terms of increased African participation in French political life. The idea that the colonies should be actively developed, in the European as much as in the African interest, was broadened during and after World War II. [15] During the 1941 Atlantic Conference, the British and the US leaders met to discuss ideas for the post-war world. WebThe figures for Sierra Leone were $21 million, 45 percent from the United Kingdom, and $10 per capita; and for the tiny Gambia $8 million, 35 percent, and $27 per capita. (2006). By 1977, 50 African countries had gained Independence from European colonial powers. Italy, a colonial power, lost its African Empire, Italian East Africa, Italian Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea, Italian Somalia and Italian Libya, as a result of World War II. 19571975 independence of African colonies from Western European powers, List of countries that have gained independence from United States, List of countries that have gained independence from Spain, List of countries that have gained independence from Portugal, African colonies listed by colonising power, Former colonies, protectorates and occupied areas, Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonisation was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonised countries. Republic of Congo Global effect of Yom Kippur War OPEC began an oil embargo of the US Economic growth made possible unprecedented social engineering, and the political geography of South Africa was transformed as millions of people were removed from so-called white areas to the Black homelands. ", Sarmento, Joo. Increasingly draconian security legislation, the banning, exile, and imprisonment of leaders (including Nelson Mandela, the leader of the ANC), and the widespread use of informants resulted in a period of relative political calm in the 1960s. [Ethiopia, Liberia, and [50], In Cameroun, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon's insurrection which began in 1955 headed by Ruben Um Nyob, was violently repressed over two years, with perhaps as many as 100 people killed. Control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle, who used the colonial bases as a launching point to help expel the Vichy government from Metropolitan France. Although the NP won only a plurality of votes, its victory signified a new Afrikaner unity that resulted from 30 years of intense ideological labour and institution building by ethnic nationalists intent on capturing the South African state. "Copying informal institutions: the role of British colonial officers during the decolonization of British Africa. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage. Britain was unwilling to grant Rhodesia independence; in 1965 the RF, under the leadership of Ian Smith, unilaterally declared Rhodesia independent. As a chief, she rallied women of different ethnic identities to demand women's rights and independence. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic. The violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country. The independence of the Portuguese colonies under self-styled Marxist governments was crucial in shifting the balance of power against the remaining white minority states in the subcontinent. In February 1951, the CPP gained political power by winning 34 of 38 elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the time. By the late 1940s both the French and the British territories possessed an educated, politicized class, which felt frustrated in its legitimate expectations; it had made no appreciable progress in securing any real participation in the system of political control. This intervention was especially devastating in Angola and Mozambique, but South Africa also destabilized eastern Zimbabwe and raided alleged ANC bases in Zambia, Botswana, Swaziland, and Lesotho. It subsequently confronted multiple crises, as Black opposition again broke to the surface with the emergence of the Black Consciousness movement in 1968, led by the charismatic activist Stephen Biko. Portugals initial response to the outbreak of revolt in Angola and Mozambique was all-out war, and by the mid 1960s there were some 70,000 Portuguese troops in each territory. Voices from the Past 58-64. There followed a military dictatorship headed first by Seyni Kountch (until his death in 1987) and then by Ali Seibou. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. "[38] Heightened nationalism within the country grew their power and the political party widely expanded. After the war the governments of both Britain and France required their colonial administrations to draw up comprehensive development plans and in effect offered to provide the funds for those that could not be funded from local resources. One of the countries that became independent after Ghana was Kenya. Between 1952 and 1960, a conflict known as the Mau Mau Uprising took place in Kenya. It was fought between several Kenyan tribes, who were angry and frustrated by colonial rule, and the British authorities. The Mau Mau Uprising did not win independence for Kenya. South Africa did not sign, because of the White commercial agriculture was heavily subsidized and competed with African peasants, who felt the main burden of the sanctions. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. In 1945, Ekpo became involved in politics after her husband, Dr. John Udo Ekpo, became dissatisfied with the colonial administration's treatment of indigenous Nigerian doctors. Part of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-800) Part of the Rashidun Caliphate (641661) Although Coloureds and Indians were subordinated to white rule and humiliated by racial discrimination, they nevertheless were privileged in comparison with Africans. But, she is memorialized in Mozambican history: April 7, the date of her death, is Mozambican Womans Day.[70]. The date 24 September 1973 (when the, Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence. Although the various interests in the NP had different interpretations of apartheid, the party essentially had three connected goals: to entrench itself in power, to promote Afrikaner concerns, and to protect white supremacy. Ekpo was later appointed to the Eastern House of Chiefs in 1954. Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt (two independent dynasties: Bar and Burj dynasties) (12501517) for the viewpoint from London and Paris see Rudolf von Albertini, Ferguson, Ed, and A. Adu Boahen. Banda and Kaunda differed greatly in their relations with the liberation struggles in the rest of Southern Africa. The French left Vietnam in 1954 and gave up its North African colonies by 1962. Margaret Ekpo was one of the most important female independence leaders in Nigeria. [17] Before WWII, Ekpo led the Aba Market Women Association in mobilizing women against colonial rule and patriarchal oppression. Part of the Abbasid Caliphate (750778) By the later 1940s, however, there were appreciable numbers of Africans in both the French and the British colonies who had emerged from traditional society through the new opportunities for economic advancement and education. The process was often marred with violence, political turmoil, widespread unrest, and organised revolts in both northern and sub-Saharan countries including the Mau Mau rebellion in British Kenya, the Algerian War in French Algeria, the Congo Crisis in the Belgian Congo, the Angolan War of Independence in Portuguese Angola, the Zanzibar Revolution in the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and the Nigerian Civil War in the secessionist state of Biafra. In response, the government abandoned many aspects of orthodox apartheid: African trade unions were recognized, the pass laws were abolished, and attempts were made to co-opt the African middle and skilled working class (through the granting of limited urban and welfare rights) and to enhance the status of Indians and Coloureds (through constitutional change). The ARPS went on to campaign against the exclusion of qualified Africans from the colonial administration. When the Portuguese left Luanda in November 1975, Angola was in the throes of a civil war between its divided liberation movements. WebMeanwhile, in places like Kenya and Vietnam, rebel groups fought long and bloody wars to gain their independence. Limited funds were made available for the provision of social services, education, soil conservation, and infrastructure development, but this assistance did little to reduce the territories dependence on migrant labour to South Africa. After joining FRELIMO, Machel soon became the leader of the womens wing, Destacamento Feminino. This was the same level of expenditure, roughly $60 per capita, as envisaged for French West Africa. In the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of local African leaders educated in Western universities, where they became familiar with and fluent in ideas such as self-determination. Since then a total of 62 countries have gained independence from the United Kingdom. [60], Nationalist and Independence movements throughout Africa have been predominantly led by men, however, women also held important roles. Despite the withdrawal of troops and an amnesty in 1988, memories of this brutal counterinsurgency campaign were even more traumatic than recollections of the liberation struggle. ", This page was last edited on 27 April 2023, at 04:32. The British funding policy, initiated in 1929, of providing the funds needed for colonial development was greatly expanded in the 1940s and extended to social as well as economic plans. WebAfter independence was proclaimed, Diori set up a single-party dictatorship and ruled until he was toppled in a coup in 1974. Nevertheless, in the early years of independence, Frelimo abolished many of the most hated aspects of colonial rule and greatly increased the availability of welfare resources for the Black populace. Many of these African members, however, were still government nominees, and, because of the British attachment to indirect rule, those who were elected were mainly representative of the traditional chiefs. In 1976 the Transkei homeland was given independence by the South African government, and grants of independence followed over the next four years to Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda, though their independence was not internationally recognized. By the second half of the 1980sin part because South Africa once more had been drawn into invading Angolathe war in Namibia was becoming increasingly costly for South Africa in military, political, economic, and diplomatic terms. Critics of neocolonialism claimed that the Franafrique had replaced formal direct rule. In South West Africa, too, the National Party increased its control in the 1950s and 60s. Omonijo, B. Nigeria: TributeMargaret Ekpo - And the Woman Died, Vanguard Newspapers, (Lagos), October 2, 2006. ", Seidler, Valentin. Prime Minister Churchill argued in the British Parliament that the document referred to "the States and nations of Europe now under the Nazi yoke". In the extreme case the Gold Coast plan envisaged spending $300 million, only 4 percent of which was British money. Sultanate of Egypt (Muhammad Ali dynasty), part of the British Empire (British protectorate) (19141922) [63], Along with her work in advocating civil and political rights, Ekpo left a legacy that notably lacked ethnic bias in a country where many forms of ethnicism and nepotism existed in politics. By 196162 the nationalists had been released and new constitutions drawn up, and in 1963 the federation was dissolved. After the war the imperial powers were under strong international pressure to decolonize. Whites, who constituted a declining proportion of the population, could not meet the demand for skilled and semiskilled labour. These elections, however, excluded ZAPU and ZANU. They pressured state governments and private institutions to disinvest from African nations not ruled by the majority population. [22] Furthermore, colonies such as Nigeria, Senegal and Ghana pushed for self-governance as colonial powers were exhausted by war efforts. The idea of a one-party state was dropped amid calls for reparations for the massacres in Matabeleland and for greater public accountability. ", Strang, David. WebIndependence and civil war. But in the decades following WWII, dozens of countries claimed their independence. Part of the Aghlabid Emirate (800909) An empirical exploration into the historical causes of Africa's underdevelopment. The three liberation movements proved unable to constitute a united front after the Portuguese coup. In Swaziland, where the presence of white settlers and South African and international economic interests held up full independence until 1968, the Swazi king Sobhuza II emerged as head of state through the overwhelming electoral majority of his Imbokodvo National Movement in the rural areas. The MPLA, with growing backing from the Portuguese [9] The process of decolonisation began as direct consequence of World War II. Despite the spread of multiparty democracy, however, violence, inequality, and poverty persisted throughout the region. By the mid 1950s it was clear that the three High Commission territories could not be transferred to South Africa and had to be prepared for independence. Kampala East Africa Education Publisher ltd. [Boahen, A. First Egyptian Satrapy, part of the Achaemenid Empire as the 27th Dynasty (525404 BC) Volume 2. Co., 1975, St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, special territories of the European Union, Constitutional Conferences in Lagos and London, Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, Spanish Territories of the Gulf of Guinea, Overseas Province of So Tom and Prncipe, French Territory of the Afars and the Issas, 1977 Afars and Issas independence referendum, List of former German colonies German Empire, Ikhshidid State of Egypt, Syria and Hejaz, People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea, French Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames, Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Captaincy-General of Mozambique, Sofala and Rivers of Sena, Democratic Republic of So Tom and Prncipe, Transitional National Government of Somalia, Transitional Federal Government of Somalia, United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa, Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence, 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum, Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on 24 April 1970, United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, United Nations list of non-self-governing territories, List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa, "A Brief History of the Berlin Conference", "Countries in Africa Considered Never Colonized", "The Impact of Kenya African Soldiers on the Creation and Evolution of the Pioneer Corps During the Second World War", "The Atlantic Conference & Charter, 1941", "War Situation - Hansard - UK Parliament", "Fireside Chat | The American Presidency Project", "Britain, the united states, and the end of the Italian empire in Africa, 194052", "A/Res/1514(XV) - E - A/Res/1514(XV) -Desktop", "DuBois the pan-Africanist and the development of African nationalism", "Historical Legacies and African Development", https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_16912.htm, "POLITICAL PARTY ACTIVITY IN GHANA1947 TO 1957 - Government of Ghana", "A Comparative Study of French and British Decolonization", "Cameroon: The UPC Insurrection, 195670", "Algeria celebrates 50 years of independence - France keeps mum", "The Evian Accords and the Algerian War: An Uncertain Peace", Mayotte votes to become France's 101st dpartement, "Margaret Ekpo Illustrated Women in History", "Centenaire de l'Entente cordiale: les accords franco-britanniques de 1904", "The Site of Ain Hanech Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria", "Winds of Change or Hot Air?
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